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. written reports

. instruction manuals

. letters, circulars and memoranda

. material posted on notice board

. in-house magazines and newspapers

. sheets of figures

. information on standard forms

. graphs, charts, drawings and photographed

. video, television and other audio-visual techniques

. meetings and interviews

. public address announcements

. electronic mail

. network messaging

. fax

. telephone and voice mail

. pager device

. video conferencing
Whatever communication method is used, the information sent should be relevant and avoid superfluous comments and unnecessary detail. The information communicated to a supervisor on a factory may have to include an exact description of the operations to be carried out. In contrast, much broader information is supplied to middle and senior management. Senior managers may only require general indicators and a broad description of the developments that need to be considered when assessing the organisation’s performance, setting objectives and deciding upon strategies.

Exception reporting

To ensure tht the information provided to management is relevant, clear and concise and makes effective use of managers’ time, some organisations stipulate that managers are only provided with dada relating to exceptional developments. Middle management, for example, may only receive information connected with performance measurements that deviate by more than an agreed percentage from their targets. The information dealing with exceptional performance should also be supported by brief statements of the internal and/or external factors that may have contributed to any exceptional performance. Exception reporting makes more effective use of the time and skills that middle management devotes to decision making and to initiating and controlling actions.

Downward information flows
A downward information flow describes the provision of information by a superior to an immediate subordinate. It is, therefore, concerned with internal communications as part of a formal communications channels. A downward information flow can cover:

. issuing instructions on the tasks that have to be carried out by a subordinate and setting objectives, such as the target data for completing the work

. requesting information concerning the area of work for which subordinates are responsible

. communicating the organisation’s procedures, working methods and practices and the rules and regulations

. given feedback on subordinate’s performance in relation to his or her objectives and targets

. motivating people and encouraging attitudes that raise productivity and improve quality.
Some information will not come from an employee’s immediate superior but from other parts of the organisations. For example, when employees first start work they receive general information about the structure and goals of the organisation from the personnel department. However, for information that relates to work undertaken by the subordinate, the communication channel should be from superior to immediate subordinate.

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