Предыдущая страница реферата | 7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14  15  16  17 | Следующая страница реферата



The third epochal cycle on the revolutionary stage is identified with the beginning of the new Old Testament tradition, which is connected with the Jews’ being in the Babylonian captivity (597-586 BC) after the invasion of Judaea by the king Nebuchadnezzar II. (till 539 BC, when Babylon was captured by the Persians). One of the world religions – Buddhism – emerges at this stage (560-480 BC – Buddha). As known, the doctrine of transmigration of souls was characteristic of Pythagoreans.

The involutionary stage is connected with the strengthening of the Persians ( in the 6th century BC, they established their control practically over the whole territory of Asia Minor, including the Greek cities, and reached more than Assyria at its times). 525 BC – the Persians received the victory over Egypt. 510 BC – the establishment of a republic in Rome. China: written laws, money, Confucianism.

The co-evolutionary stage of the third epochal cycle is identified with the wars between the Greeks and the Persians (500-449 BC). At the same time, there happened the first great clash of the West and the East, the time of growth of the classic antique culture (Aeschyle, Sophocle, Pericles, Thucydides, Protagor: «the man is a measure of all things»). China: 481-281 BC – the period of «fighting kingdoms» of the «seven strongest»: Ch’in, Ch’u, Yuan, Ch’i, Wei, Chao, Han. The philosopher Mo-Czi (utopianism). The evolutionary stage of the characterized cycle is connected with the following historical events: the conflict of plebeians and patricians in Rome. 469-399 BC – Socrates. The dialectic thinking in the western civilizational tradition. 444-429 BC – the Athenian democracy. Pericles. 431-404 BC – the Peloponnesus war between Athens and Sparta for hegemony, the beginning of decline of a traditional Greek polis. The strengthening of Macedonia. The beginning of creation of the Great Chinese wall – the only artificial structure seen from the cosmos.

The third epochal cycle, impregnated with large-scale historical events, has the chronological frames of VI-V centuries BC. In fact, it is the «axial time» according to Jaspers.

The fourth epochal cycle took its start in the 6th century BC in the revolutionary phase and is connected with the sources of the Hellenism and the synthesis of the western and eastern traditions. 356-323 BC – Alexander the Great. 378-338 BC – the second Athenian naval union («The Gold Autumn of Athens»). 359-348 BC – the legist traditions (totalitarian model) of Shan Yan in the kingdom of Ch’in (China). The involutionary stage of the cycle is characterized with the wars of Diadochi for the heritage of Alexander the Great; India: the Empire of Maurya. Arthashastra – the science of policy. Rome – the end of the struggle between plebeians and patricians, the strengthening of the republican system, the spread of the Roman hegemony on the entire Apennine peninsula. The co-evolutionary stage is connected with the recognition of Buddhism as the official religion in India (Asoka 268-231 BC). The end of the Diadochian wars, the consolidation of the Hellenistic kingdoms (near 281 BC). The unification of China at the time of the Ch’in dynasty (246-201 BC). The beginning of the Punic wars between Rome and Carthage for the dominance over the Mediterranean region (264 BC). 146 BC – Rome established its power over Greece. The downfall of Carthage. The transformation of the Roman republic into the most powerful state. China: 145-87 BC – Ssu-ma Ch’ien. The classical tractate «Shi Tzi» (The Historical Notes). The evolutionary stage of the fourth epochal cycle comprises about 200 years (a hundred years BC and a hundred years AD) and is characterized with important changes: the crisis of the Roman Republic (the problems of the land reform – the activity of the brothers Gracchus); the peasant’s war in China under the guidance of Luban and the rule of the first dynasty of Han (206 BC – 9 AD). Near 165 BC: Judaea – the revolt of the Makoveii. The establishment of the «Great Silk Way» between the Empire of Han and Rome. Civil wars, the crisis of the Roman Republic. The 1st January 45 BC – the Julian Calendar. 30 BC – Rome – emperor Octavian Augustus. We recall that, in the era of Anno Domini, there is no null year. The date of Christmas was defined in 525 AD by Dionysus the Little. China: the revolt of the «Red Brows» in 18-29 AD. China: the invention of the rice paper. Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The beginning of the Christianity in the Roman Empire. The fourth epochal cycle – IV BC – I AD. The blossom of the Roman Empire. The spiritual crisis and the appearance of the new world religion of Christianity.

The fifth epochal cycle begins approximately in the 2nd century AD. The revolutionary stage is connected with the empire traditions of Rome. China: 220-265 AD – the «triregnum» period (hegemons), 3rd century AD – the spread of the Buddhist tradition from India. 313 AD Constantine acknowledged the Christianity as the official religion in the Roman Empire. The involutionary stage of the cycle is identified with the war between Rome and Persia. 381 AD – the Ecumenical council – the censure of Aryanism, the fight with the Christian heresies. 395 AD – the division of the Roman empire to the Western and Eastern ones (the Byzantine Empire). 451 AD – the defeat of Huns on the Catalaun fields. 455 AD – the spoliation of Rome by the Vandals. Nesterians – Christianity moves to the East. The co-evolutionary stage is connected with the formation of Barbarian statehood (the Barbarization of the Western Roman Empire and the Romanization of the Barbarians). 481-511 AD – Chlodwig – the king of Francs. 419-554 AD – the Visigothic kingdom. 439-534 AD – North Africa: Vandals. Byzantine Empire: Justinian (482-565 AD). 568 AD – Langobards in Italy ( in 757 AD, they were defeated by Pippinus Brevis). 407 AD – the Roman legions left Britain («the period of seven kings»).

The evolutionary stage of the fifth epochal cycle (6th century AD) is connected with important events in the development of the world religions. Christianity. Pope Gregorius I (590-604) – the attempt to strengthen the thearchy, which became the symbol of the struggle of Vatican as a universalistic force and secular feudalists for the hegemony over Europe till the period of the Reformation. Islam: 570-632 AD – prophet Mohammed, Koran. The 20th of September, 622 AD – Hegira (the emigration of the Prophet to Mecca) – the beginning of the chronology («the null year») according to the Muslim Calendar. Buddhism: the penetration to Japan, Cambodia, Korea, Tibet. The Slavs: the struggle against the Avars. 623-658 AD – the state of Samo (Czechia, Moravia).

Therefore, the fifth epochal cycle at the global level of the world historical process chronologically comprises the period from the 2nd to the 6th centuries AD.

The sixth epochal cycle is identified within the chronological frames of approximately VII-XII centuries: from Arabic invasions, the Islamic expansion, to the crusades, whose historical content was the continuation of the process of convergence between the West and East.

The revolutionary stage of the sixth epochal cycle is connected with the crisis of development of the early-feudalist state formations or, as the history of Byzantine and Chinese states showed, with the overexertion of forces in the foregoing periods of unsuccessful wars for a regional hegemony. 618-906 AD – the dynasty of T’ang. The struggle against nomads. Peru: the state of Chimu. The involutionary stage is connected with large Arabic invasions: 638 AD – Jerusalem is captured. The Persians are defeated. 643 AD – Cairo is founded. 661 – 750 AD – the Caliphate of Omeyads. The struggle between the Shiah (the followers of Ali) and the Sunni. 714 AD – the Arabs reached the Pyrenees (in 732, Carolus Martellus stopped them). 711 AD – India: Arabs captured Multan, the center of Hinduism. 751 AD – the victory of Arabs over the Chinese near the Talas river. 726-843 AD – the iconoclastism in the Byzantine Empire.

The co-evolutionary stage of the sixth epochal cycle is characterized by the strengthening of states, belonging to the advance-guard in various regions. 863 AD – Cyril and Methodius – the Cyrillic alphabet. 768-814 AD – Carolus Magnus – the king of Franks, since 800 AD – the emperor. Normanns campaigns. 862 AD – Rurik in Novgorod, 879-912 AD – Oleg in Kiev. 803-814 AD – the Bulgarian Khan Krum. 829 AD – the unification of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (Britain). 843 AD – Ludwig the German. 877-889 AD – Cambodia: the Empire of Angkor (Buddhism). 988 AD – Rus introduced the Byzantine Christianity. 966 AD – Poland introduced the Latin Christianity. France: 987-1328 AD – the Capetian dynasty. Germany: 919-1024 AD – the Saxon dynasty: the struggle for domination over Italy. North America: sources of the Maya civilization. 1054 AD – the split of the Orthodox and the Catholic. 1049 AD – Kiev – Illarion «The Word on the Law and Welfare». 1097 AD – the meeting of princes in Lubech: «Let Everyone Keep One’s Own Domain».

The evolutionary stage of the sixth epochal cycle is characterized with the important changes. The cities were becoming more powerful in Western Europe. Their economic life made competition to the traditional agricultural production. The first universities, the centers of free thinking that stimulated the Reformation, begin to appear. The war for power between the civil and church feudalists was becoming more intense. China: 1069-1086 AD – the reforms of Van Anshi; the substitution of working off by taxation, the administrative regulation of prices. Japan: the strengthening of samurai. 1068-1167 AD – the period of «insei». The spiritual content: 1048-1112 AD – Omar Khayyam. 1079-1142 AD – Pierre Abelard. 1096-1270 AD – the crusades for the deliverance of the Holy Sepulchre. Despite the defeat of the West, the crusades became, in fact, «a repetition» for future colonial seizures.

Approximate chronological frames of the seventh epochal cycle can be started from the 13th century – the period of the early Italian Renaissance (in fact, it was the revolutionary stage of the «return» to the best antique traditions) to the times of the struggle of the United States for independence (1774) and the Great French Revolution (1789-1794).

The involutionary stage of that cycle is connected with the period of the Reformation of the Catholic Church, which promoted the origin of the «spirit» of capitalism. The contrasts between the «unique» West-European values and the «universal» Asian values became more apparent since that moment.

The co-evolutionary stage of the seventh epochal cycle is identified with the period of the Great geographic discoveries and the beginning of colonial seizures. The leaders in conducting the successful bourgeois revolutions – England and the Netherlands – became the organizers of these seizures. The emergence of the actually global colonial system influenced both the rhythms of the cycles of development of dependent countries and the development of colonial states themselves. The North-American United States were the first to have gained independence.

The eighth epochal cycle. Having appeared in the bosom of the global evolutionary tendencies of development, the French revolution (1789-1794) «opened» the prospect to new tendencies of the global social development that, apparently, could be connected with the notion of «modernism». As a new global tendency, it had its influence on the course of world processes by crossing the borders of a phenomenon of the purely national French history. Generating the ideals of liberty, egality, and fraternity, it was more and more apparently becoming the inheritance of the whole Europe and, with a growth of this tendency, becoming impregnate with new cultural traditions – the inheritance of the world. Its influence gave its shoots in Europe (revolutions of 1830, 1848-1849), in Russia (the revolt of the Decembrists in 1825 and the revolutions of 1905, 1917), in Japan (Meiji revolution of 1868), in China (The Sin-Hai revolution of 1911 and the revolution of 1949). In Latin America, this period comprises the time since the struggle for independence under the guidance of Simon Bolivar (19th century) to the revolution in Cuba (1959) and Nicaragua (1979). In Africa, this period began only since the time of the collapse of the colonial system (1960’s).

The involutionary period of the eighth epochal cycle may be referred to the latter half of the 19th – the first half of the 20th century. Its main content is the gradual transition from the industrial to post-industrial civilization. It is connected with the formalization of the structure of the classic bourgeois society (the revolutions of 1848-1849) and the corresponding development of industry and free market. Monopolies appeared which sharpened the struggle for the sales and raw materials markets between the leading imperialistic states between the First and Second World Wars, which are viewed more and more often as two stages of one world war.

The co-evolutionary transition of the eighth epochal cycle is «opened» by the events of the Great Depression (1929-1933) which received the second breath in the period of the 1980’s and 1990’s, by giving universal and irreversible character to the tendencies. The most important events of the period were as follows: the end of the «cold war» that marked the end of the opposition of two superpowers – the USA and the USSR; the Gulf war as the result of the call of Iraq, the regional leader, to the coalition of the leading world states under guidance of the USA; the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall and the unification of Germany (1989), the disintegration of the USSR (1990-1991) and the creation of new independent states. These events radically changed the geostrategic situation in the world. Whereas the UN Organization had only 51 member-states at the moment of its creation (1949), 185 ones enter it as of December 1994.

The dawn of the post-industrial civilization, related to a tremendous growth of informational technologies and genetic engineering and to the time named «post-modernism» by social philosophers, is only developing in the bosom of the eighth epochal cycle but will become the overall tendency in the new XXI century.

Of more complexity is the task of creating the hypothetical schemes of periodization of a change of epochal cycles for separate regions and specific countries.

CHAPTER 7

Regional-continental (medi) level
of analisys of the historical development

Here, we present a scheme of periodization of epochal cycles for specific regions.

The approach to defining the corresponding territories can be developed on the basis of criteria of the cultural-civilizational approach or geopolitic determinants. We recall the scheme of classification of civilizations, given by Toynbee[57].

1.         Blossomed civilizations.

Рекомендуем скачать другие рефераты по теме: сочинение 7 класс, сочинение.

Предыдущая страница реферата | 7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14  15  16  17 | Следующая страница реферата